@c -*-texinfo-*-
@c This is part of the GNU Guile Reference Manual.
@c Copyright (C)  1996, 1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004
@c   Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See the file guile.texi for copying conditions.

@page
@node Modules
@section Modules
@cindex modules

When programs become large, naming conflicts can occur when a function
or global variable defined in one file has the same name as a function
or global variable in another file.  Even just a @emph{similarity}
between function names can cause hard-to-find bugs, since a programmer
might type the wrong function name.

The approach used to tackle this problem is called @emph{information
encapsulation}, which consists of packaging functional units into a
given name space that is clearly separated from other name spaces.
@cindex encapsulation
@cindex information encapsulation
@cindex name space

The language features that allow this are usually called @emph{the
module system} because programs are broken up into modules that are
compiled separately (or loaded separately in an interpreter).

Older languages, like C, have limited support for name space
manipulation and protection.  In C a variable or function is public by
default, and can be made local to a module with the @code{static}
keyword.  But you cannot reference public variables and functions from
another module with different names.

More advanced module systems have become a common feature in recently
designed languages: ML, Python, Perl, and Modula 3 all allow the
@emph{renaming} of objects from a foreign module, so they will not
clutter the global name space.
@cindex name space - private

In addition, Guile offers variables as first-class objects.  They can
be used for interacting with the module system.

@menu
* provide and require::         The SLIB feature mechanism.
* Environments::                R5RS top-level environments.
* The Guile module system::     How Guile does it.
* Dynamic Libraries::           Loading libraries of compiled code at run time.
* Variables::                   First-class variables.
@end menu

@node provide and require
@subsection provide and require

Aubrey Jaffer, mostly to support his portable Scheme library SLIB,
implemented a provide/require mechanism for many Scheme implementations.
Library files in SLIB @emph{provide} a feature, and when user programs
@emph{require} that feature, the library file is loaded in.

For example, the file @file{random.scm} in the SLIB package contains the
line

@smalllisp
(provide 'random)
@end smalllisp

so to use its procedures, a user would type

@smalllisp
(require 'random)
@end smalllisp

and they would magically become available, @emph{but still have the same
names!}  So this method is nice, but not as good as a full-featured
module system.

When SLIB is used with Guile, provide and require can be used to access
its facilities.

@node Environments
@subsection Environments
@cindex environment

Scheme, as defined in R5RS, does @emph{not} have a full module system.
However it does define the concept of a top-level @dfn{environment}.
Such an environment maps identifiers (symbols) to Scheme objects such
as procedures and lists: @ref{About Closure}.  In other words, it
implements a set of @dfn{bindings}.

Environments in R5RS can be passed as the second argument to
@code{eval} (@pxref{Fly Evaluation}).  Three procedures are defined to
return environments: @code{scheme-report-environment},
@code{null-environment} and @code{interaction-environment} (@pxref{Fly
Evaluation}).

In addition, in Guile any module can be used as an R5RS environment,
i.e., passed as the second argument to @code{eval}.

Note: the following two procedures are available only when the 
@code{(ice-9 r5rs)} module is loaded:

@smalllisp
(use-modules (ice-9 r5rs))
@end smalllisp

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} scheme-report-environment version
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} null-environment version
@var{version} must be the exact integer `5', corresponding to revision
5 of the Scheme report (the Revised^5 Report on Scheme).
@code{scheme-report-environment} returns a specifier for an
environment that is empty except for all bindings defined in the
report that are either required or both optional and supported by the
implementation. @code{null-environment} returns a specifier for an
environment that is empty except for the (syntactic) bindings for all
syntactic keywords defined in the report that are either required or
both optional and supported by the implementation.

Currently Guile does not support values of @var{version} for other
revisions of the report.

The effect of assigning (through the use of @code{eval}) a variable
bound in a @code{scheme-report-environment} (for example @code{car})
is unspecified.  Currently the environments specified by
@code{scheme-report-environment} are not immutable in Guile.
@end deffn

@node The Guile module system
@subsection The Guile module system

The Guile module system extends the concept of environments, discussed
in the previous section, with mechanisms to define, use and customise
sets of bindings.

In 1996 Tom Lord implemented a full-featured module system for Guile which
allows loading Scheme source files into a private name space.  This system has
been in available since at least Guile version 1.1.

For Guile version 1.5.0 and later, the system has been improved to have better
integration from C code, more fine-grained user control over interfaces, and
documentation.

Although it is anticipated that the module system implementation will
change in the future, the Scheme programming interface described in this
manual should be considered stable.  The C programming interface is
considered relatively stable, although at the time of this writing,
there is still some flux.

@menu
* General Information about Modules::  Guile module basics.
* Using Guile Modules::         How to use existing modules.
* Creating Guile Modules::      How to package your code into modules.
* Module System Reflection::    Accessing module objects at run-time.
* Module System Quirks::        Strange things to be aware of.
* Included Guile Modules::      Which modules come with Guile?
* Accessing Modules from C::    How to work with modules with C code.
@end menu

@node General Information about Modules
@subsubsection General Information about Modules

A Guile module can be thought of as a collection of named procedures,
variables and macros.  More precisely, it is a set of @dfn{bindings}
of symbols (names) to Scheme objects.

An environment is a mapping from identifiers (or symbols) to locations,
i.e., a set of bindings.
There are top-level environments and lexical environments.
The environment in which a lambda is executed is remembered as part of its
definition.

Within a module, all bindings are visible.  Certain bindings
can be declared @dfn{public}, in which case they are added to the
module's so-called @dfn{export list}; this set of public bindings is
called the module's @dfn{public interface} (@pxref{Creating Guile
Modules}).

A client module @dfn{uses} a providing module's bindings by either
accessing the providing module's public interface, or by building a
custom interface (and then accessing that).  In a custom interface, the
client module can @dfn{select} which bindings to access and can also
algorithmically @dfn{rename} bindings.  In contrast, when using the
providing module's public interface, the entire export list is available
without renaming (@pxref{Using Guile Modules}).

To use a module, it must be found and loaded.  All Guile modules have a
unique @dfn{module name}, which is a list of one or more symbols.
Examples are @code{(ice-9 popen)} or @code{(srfi srfi-11)}.  When Guile
searches for the code of a module, it constructs the name of the file to
load by concatenating the name elements with slashes between the
elements and appending a number of file name extensions from the list
@code{%load-extensions} (@pxref{Loading}).  The resulting file name is
then searched in all directories in the variable @code{%load-path}
(@pxref{Build Config}).  For example, the @code{(ice-9 popen)} module
would result in the filename @code{ice-9/popen.scm} and searched in the
installation directories of Guile and in all other directories in the
load path.

@c FIXME::martin:  Not sure about this, maybe someone knows better?
Every module has a so-called syntax transformer associated with it.
This is a procedure which performs all syntax transformation for the
time the module is read in and evaluated.  When working with modules,
you can manipulate the current syntax transformer using the
@code{use-syntax} syntactic form or the @code{#:use-syntax} module
definition option (@pxref{Creating Guile Modules}).

Please note that there are some problems with the current module system
you should keep in mind (@pxref{Module System Quirks}).  We hope to
address these eventually.


@node Using Guile Modules
@subsubsection Using Guile Modules

To use a Guile module is to access either its public interface or a
custom interface (@pxref{General Information about Modules}).  Both
types of access are handled by the syntactic form @code{use-modules},
which accepts one or more interface specifications and, upon evaluation,
arranges for those interfaces to be available to the current module.
This process may include locating and loading code for a given module if
that code has not yet been loaded, following @code{%load-path} (@pxref{Build
Config}).

An @dfn{interface specification} has one of two forms.  The first
variation is simply to name the module, in which case its public
interface is the one accessed.  For example:

@smalllisp
(use-modules (ice-9 popen))
@end smalllisp

Here, the interface specification is @code{(ice-9 popen)}, and the
result is that the current module now has access to @code{open-pipe},
@code{close-pipe}, @code{open-input-pipe}, and so on (@pxref{Included
Guile Modules}).

Note in the previous example that if the current module had already
defined @code{open-pipe}, that definition would be overwritten by the
definition in @code{(ice-9 popen)}.  For this reason (and others), there
is a second variation of interface specification that not only names a
module to be accessed, but also selects bindings from it and renames
them to suit the current module's needs.  For example:

@smalllisp
(use-modules ((ice-9 popen)
              :select ((open-pipe . pipe-open) close-pipe)
              :renamer (symbol-prefix-proc 'unixy:)))
@end smalllisp

Here, the interface specification is more complex than before, and the
result is that a custom interface with only two bindings is created and
subsequently accessed by the current module.  The mapping of old to new
names is as follows:

@c Use `smallexample' since `table' is ugly.  --ttn
@smallexample
(ice-9 popen) sees:             current module sees:
open-pipe                       unixy:pipe-open
close-pipe                      unixy:close-pipe
@end smallexample

This example also shows how to use the convenience procedure
@code{symbol-prefix-proc}.

You can also directly refer to bindings in a module by using the
@code{@@} syntax.  For example, instead of using the
@code{use-modules} statement from above and writing
@code{unixy:pipe-open} to refer to the @code{pipe-open} from the
@code{(ice-9 popen)}, you could also write @code{(@@ (ice-9 popen)
open-pipe)}.  Thus an alternative to the complete @code{use-modules}
statement would be

@smalllisp
(define unixy:pipe-open (@@ (ice-9 popen) open-pipe))
(define unixy:close-pipe (@@ (ice-9 popen) close-pipe))
@end smalllisp

There is also @code{@@@@}, which can be used like @code{@@}, but does
not check whether the variable that is being accessed is actually
exported.  Thus, @code{@@@@} can be thought of as the impolite version
of @code{@@} and should only be used as a last resort or for
debugging, for example.

Note that just as with a @code{use-modules} statement, any module that
has not yet been loaded yet will be loaded when referenced by a
@code{@@} or @code{@@@@} form.

You can also use the @code{@@} and @code{@@@@} syntaxes as the target
of a @code{set!} when the binding refers to a variable.

@c begin (scm-doc-string "boot-9.scm" "symbol-prefix-proc")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} symbol-prefix-proc prefix-sym
Return a procedure that prefixes its arg (a symbol) with
@var{prefix-sym}.
@c Insert gratuitous C++ slam here.  --ttn
@end deffn

@c begin (scm-doc-string "boot-9.scm" "use-modules")
@deffn syntax use-modules spec @dots{}
Resolve each interface specification @var{spec} into an interface and
arrange for these to be accessible by the current module.  The return
value is unspecified.

@var{spec} can be a list of symbols, in which case it names a module
whose public interface is found and used.

@var{spec} can also be of the form:

@smalllisp
 (MODULE-NAME [:select SELECTION] [:renamer RENAMER])
@end smalllisp

in which case a custom interface is newly created and used.
@var{module-name} is a list of symbols, as above; @var{selection} is a
list of selection-specs; and @var{renamer} is a procedure that takes a
symbol and returns its new name.  A selection-spec is either a symbol or
a pair of symbols @code{(ORIG . SEEN)}, where @var{orig} is the name in
the used module and @var{seen} is the name in the using module.  Note
that @var{seen} is also passed through @var{renamer}.

The @code{:select} and @code{:renamer} clauses are optional.  If both are
omitted, the returned interface has no bindings.  If the @code{:select}
clause is omitted, @var{renamer} operates on the used module's public
interface.

Signal error if module name is not resolvable.
@end deffn


@c FIXME::martin: Is this correct, and is there more to say?
@c FIXME::martin: Define term and concept `system transformer' somewhere.

@deffn syntax use-syntax module-name
Load the module @code{module-name} and use its system
transformer as the system transformer for the currently defined module,
as well as installing it as the current system transformer.
@end deffn

@deffn syntax @@ module-name binding-name
Refer to the binding named @var{binding-name} in module
@var{module-name}.  The binding must have been exported by the module.
@end deffn

@deffn syntax @@@@ module-name binding-name
Refer to the binding named @var{binding-name} in module
@var{module-name}.  The binding must not have been exported by the
module.  This syntax is only intended for debugging purposes or as a
last resort.
@end deffn

@node Creating Guile Modules
@subsubsection Creating Guile Modules

When you want to create your own modules, you have to take the following
steps:

@itemize @bullet
@item
Create a Scheme source file and add all variables and procedures you wish
to export, or which are required by the exported procedures.

@item
Add a @code{define-module} form at the beginning.

@item
Export all bindings which should be in the public interface, either
by using @code{define-public} or @code{export} (both documented below).
@end itemize

@c begin (scm-doc-string "boot-9.scm" "define-module")
@deffn syntax define-module module-name [options @dots{}]
@var{module-name} is of the form @code{(hierarchy file)}.  One
example of this is

@smalllisp
(define-module (ice-9 popen))
@end smalllisp

@code{define-module} makes this module available to Guile programs under
the given @var{module-name}.

The @var{options} are keyword/value pairs which specify more about the
defined module.  The recognized options and their meaning is shown in
the following table.

@c fixme: Should we use "#:" or ":"?

@table @code
@item #:use-module @var{interface-specification}
Equivalent to a @code{(use-modules @var{interface-specification})}
(@pxref{Using Guile Modules}).

@item #:use-syntax @var{module}
Use @var{module} when loading the currently defined module, and install
it as the syntax transformer.

@item #:autoload @var{module} @var{symbol-list}
@cindex autoload
Load @var{module} when any of @var{symbol-list} are accessed.  For
example,

@example
(define-module (my mod)
  #:autoload (srfi srfi-1) (partition delete-duplicates))
...
(if something
    (set! foo (delete-duplicates ...)))
@end example

When a module is autoloaded, all its bindings become available.
@var{symbol-list} is just those that will first trigger the load.

An autoload is a good way to put off loading a big module until it's
really needed, for instance for faster startup or if it will only be
needed in certain circumstances.

@code{@@} can do a similar thing (@pxref{Using Guile Modules}), but in
that case an @code{@@} form must be written every time a binding from
the module is used.

@item #:export @var{list}
@cindex export
Export all identifiers in @var{list}, which must be a list of symbols.
This is equivalent to @code{(export @var{list})} in the module body.

@item #:no-backtrace
@cindex no backtrace
Tell Guile not to record information for procedure backtraces when
executing the procedures in this module.

@item #:pure
@cindex pure module
Create a @dfn{pure} module, that is a module which does not contain any
of the standard procedure bindings except for the syntax forms.  This is
useful if you want to create @dfn{safe} modules, that is modules which
do not know anything about dangerous procedures.
@end table

@end deffn
@c end

@deffn syntax export variable @dots{}
Add all @var{variable}s (which must be symbols) to the list of exported
bindings of the current module.
@end deffn

@c begin (scm-doc-string "boot-9.scm" "define-public")
@deffn syntax define-public @dots{}
Equivalent to @code{(begin (define foo ...) (export foo))}.
@end deffn
@c end

@node Module System Reflection
@subsubsection Module System Reflection

The previous sections have described a declarative view of the module
system.  You can also work with it programmatically by accessing and
modifying various parts of the Scheme objects that Guile uses to
implement the module system.

At any time, there is a @dfn{current module}.  This module is the one
where a top-level @code{define} and similar syntax will add new
bindings.  You can find other module objects with @code{resolve-module},
for example.

These module objects can be used as the second argument to @code{eval}.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} current-module
Return the current module object.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} set-current-module module
Set the current module to @var{module} and return
the previous current module.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} resolve-module name
Find the module named @var{name} and return it.  When it has not already
been defined, try to auto-load it.  When it can't be found that way
either, create an empty module.  The name is a list of symbols.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} resolve-interface name
Find the module named @var{name} as with @code{resolve-module} and
return its interface.  The interface of a module is also a module
object, but it contains only the exported bindings.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} module-use! module interface
Add @var{interface} to the front of the use-list of @var{module}.  Both
arguments should be module objects, and @var{interface} should very
likely be a module returned by @code{resolve-interface}.
@end deffn

@node Module System Quirks
@subsubsection Module System Quirks

Although the programming interfaces are relatively stable, the Guile
module system itself is still evolving.  Here are some situations where
usage surpasses design.

@itemize @bullet

@item
When using a module which exports a macro definition, the other module
must export all bindings the macro expansion uses, too, because the
expanded code would otherwise not be able to see these definitions and
issue a ``variable unbound'' error, or worse, would use another binding
which might be present in the scope of the expansion.

@item
When two or more used modules export bindings with the same names, the
last accessed module wins, and the exported binding of that last module
will silently be used.  This might lead to hard-to-find errors because
wrong procedures or variables are used.  To avoid this kind of
@dfn{name-clash} situation, use a custom interface specification
(@pxref{Using Guile Modules}).  (We include this entry for the possible
benefit of users of Guile versions previous to 1.5.0, when custom
interfaces were added to the module system.)

@item
[Add other quirks here.]

@end itemize


@node Included Guile Modules
@subsubsection Included Guile Modules

@c FIXME::martin: Review me!

Some modules are included in the Guile distribution; here are references
to the entries in this manual which describe them in more detail:

@table @strong
@item boot-9
boot-9 is Guile's initialization module, and it is always loaded when
Guile starts up.

@item (ice-9 debug)
Mikael Djurfeldt's source-level debugging support for Guile
(@pxref{Debugging Features}).

@item (ice-9 expect)
Actions based on matching input from a port (@pxref{Expect}).

@item (ice-9 format)
Formatted output in the style of Common Lisp (@pxref{Formatted
Output}).

@item (ice-9 ftw)
File tree walker (@pxref{File Tree Walk}).

@item (ice-9 getopt-long)
Command line option processing (@pxref{getopt-long}).

@item (ice-9 history)
Refer to previous interactive expressions (@pxref{Value History}).

@item (ice-9 popen)
Pipes to and from child processes (@pxref{Pipes}).

@item (ice-9 pretty-print)
Nicely formatted output of Scheme expressions and objects
(@pxref{Pretty Printing}).

@item (ice-9 q)
First-in first-out queues (@pxref{Queues}).

@item (ice-9 rdelim)
Line- and character-delimited input (@pxref{Line/Delimited}).

@item (ice-9 readline)
@code{readline} interactive command line editing (@pxref{Readline
Support}).

@item (ice-9 receive)
Multiple-value handling with @code{receive} (@pxref{Multiple Values}).

@item (ice-9 regex)
Regular expression matching (@pxref{Regular Expressions}).

@item (ice-9 rw)
Block string input/output (@pxref{Block Reading and Writing}).

@item (ice-9 streams)
Sequence of values calculated on-demand (@pxref{Streams}).

@item (ice-9 syncase)
R5RS @code{syntax-rules} macro system (@pxref{Syntax Rules}).

@item (ice-9 threads)
Guile's support for multi threaded execution (@pxref{Scheduling}).

@item (ice-9 documentation)
Online documentation (REFFIXME).

@item (srfi srfi-1)
A library providing a lot of useful list and pair processing
procedures (@pxref{SRFI-1}).

@item (srfi srfi-2)
Support for @code{and-let*} (@pxref{SRFI-2}).

@item (srfi srfi-4)
Support for homogeneous numeric vectors (@pxref{SRFI-4}).

@item (srfi srfi-6)
Support for some additional string port procedures (@pxref{SRFI-6}).

@item (srfi srfi-8)
Multiple-value handling with @code{receive} (@pxref{SRFI-8}).

@item (srfi srfi-9)
Record definition with @code{define-record-type} (@pxref{SRFI-9}).

@item (srfi srfi-10)
Read hash extension @code{#,()} (@pxref{SRFI-10}).

@item (srfi srfi-11)
Multiple-value handling with @code{let-values} and @code{let-values*}
(@pxref{SRFI-11}).

@item (srfi srfi-13)
String library (@pxref{SRFI-13}).

@item (srfi srfi-14)
Character-set library (@pxref{SRFI-14}).

@item (srfi srfi-16)
@code{case-lambda} procedures of variable arity (@pxref{SRFI-16}).

@item (srfi srfi-17)
Getter-with-setter support (@pxref{SRFI-17}).

@item (srfi srfi-19)
Time/Date library (@pxref{SRFI-19}).

@item (srfi srfi-26)
Convenient syntax for partial application (@pxref{SRFI-26})

@item (srfi srfi-31)
@code{rec} convenient recursive expressions (@pxref{SRFI-31})

@item (ice-9 slib)
This module contains hooks for using Aubrey Jaffer's portable Scheme
library SLIB from Guile (@pxref{SLIB}).
@end table


@node Accessing Modules from C
@subsubsection Accessing Modules from C

The last sections have described how modules are used in Scheme code,
which is the recommended way of creating and accessing modules.  You
can also work with modules from C, but it is more cumbersome.

The following procedures are available.

@deftypefn {C Procedure} SCM scm_current_module ()
Return the module that is the @emph{current module}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Procedure} SCM scm_set_current_module (SCM @var{module})
Set the current module to @var{module} and return the previous current
module.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Procedure} SCM scm_c_call_with_current_module (SCM @var{module}, SCM (*@var{func})(void *), void *@var{data})
Call @var{func} and make @var{module} the current module during the
call.  The argument @var{data} is passed to @var{func}.  The return
value of @code{scm_c_call_with_current_module} is the return value of
@var{func}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Procedure} SCM scm_c_lookup (const char *@var{name})
Return the variable bound to the symbol indicated by @var{name} in the
current module.  If there is no such binding or the symbol is not
bound to a variable, signal an error.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Procedure} SCM scm_lookup (SCM @var{name})
Like @code{scm_c_lookup}, but the symbol is specified directly.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Procedure} SCM scm_c_module_lookup (SCM @var{module}, const char *@var{name})
@deftypefnx {C Procedure} SCM scm_module_lookup (SCM @var{module}, SCM @var{name})
Like @code{scm_c_lookup} and @code{scm_lookup}, but the specified
module is used instead of the current one.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Procedure} SCM scm_c_define (const char *@var{name}, SCM @var{val})
Bind the symbol indicated by @var{name} to a variable in the current
module and set that variable to @var{val}.  When @var{name} is already
bound to a variable, use that.  Else create a new variable.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Procedure} SCM scm_define (SCM @var{name}, SCM @var{val})
Like @code{scm_c_define}, but the symbol is specified directly.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Procedure} SCM scm_c_module_define (SCM @var{module}, const char *@var{name}, SCM @var{val})
@deftypefnx {C Procedure} SCM scm_module_define (SCM @var{module}, SCM @var{name}, SCM @var{val})
Like @code{scm_c_define} and @code{scm_define}, but the specified
module is used instead of the current one.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Procedure} SCM scm_module_reverse_lookup (SCM @var{module}, SCM @var{variable})
Find the symbol that is bound to @var{variable} in @var{module}.  When no such binding is found, return @var{#f}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Procedure} SCM scm_c_define_module (const char *@var{name}, void (*@var{init})(void *), void *@var{data})
Define a new module named @var{name} and make it current while
@var{init} is called, passing it @var{data}.  Return the module.

The parameter @var{name} is a string with the symbols that make up
the module name, separated by spaces.  For example, @samp{"foo bar"} names
the module @samp{(foo bar)}.

When there already exists a module named @var{name}, it is used
unchanged, otherwise, an empty module is created.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Procedure} SCM scm_c_resolve_module (const char *@var{name})
Find the module name @var{name} and return it.  When it has not
already been defined, try to auto-load it.  When it can't be found
that way either, create an empty module.  The name is interpreted as
for @code{scm_c_define_module}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Procedure} SCM scm_resolve_module (SCM @var{name})
Like @code{scm_c_resolve_module}, but the name is given as a real list
of symbols.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Procedure} SCM scm_c_use_module (const char *@var{name})
Add the module named @var{name} to the uses list of the current
module, as with @code{(use-modules @var{name})}.  The name is
interpreted as for @code{scm_c_define_module}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Procedure} SCM scm_c_export (const char *@var{name}, ...)
Add the bindings designated by @var{name}, ... to the public interface
of the current module.  The list of names is terminated by
@code{NULL}.
@end deftypefn

@node Dynamic Libraries
@subsection Dynamic Libraries

Most modern Unices have something called @dfn{shared libraries}.  This
ordinarily means that they have the capability to share the executable
image of a library between several running programs to save memory and
disk space.  But generally, shared libraries give a lot of additional
flexibility compared to the traditional static libraries.  In fact,
calling them `dynamic' libraries is as correct as calling them `shared'.

Shared libraries really give you a lot of flexibility in addition to the
memory and disk space savings.  When you link a program against a shared
library, that library is not closely incorporated into the final
executable.  Instead, the executable of your program only contains
enough information to find the needed shared libraries when the program
is actually run.  Only then, when the program is starting, is the final
step of the linking process performed.  This means that you need not
recompile all programs when you install a new, only slightly modified
version of a shared library.  The programs will pick up the changes
automatically the next time they are run.

Now, when all the necessary machinery is there to perform part of the
linking at run-time, why not take the next step and allow the programmer
to explicitly take advantage of it from within his program?  Of course,
many operating systems that support shared libraries do just that, and
chances are that Guile will allow you to access this feature from within
your Scheme programs.  As you might have guessed already, this feature
is called @dfn{dynamic linking}.@footnote{Some people also refer to the
final linking stage at program startup as `dynamic linking', so if you
want to make yourself perfectly clear, it is probably best to use the
more technical term @dfn{dlopening}, as suggested by Gordon Matzigkeit
in his libtool documentation.}

As with many aspects of Guile, there is a low-level way to access the
dynamic linking apparatus, and a more high-level interface that
integrates dynamically linked libraries into the module system.

@menu
* Low level dynamic linking::
* Compiled Code Modules::
* Dynamic Linking and Compiled Code Modules::
@end menu

@node Low level dynamic linking
@subsubsection Low level dynamic linking

When using the low level procedures to do your dynamic linking, you have
complete control over which library is loaded when and what gets done
with it.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} dynamic-link library
@deffnx {C Function} scm_dynamic_link (library)
Find the shared library denoted by @var{library} (a string) and link it
into the running Guile application.  When everything works out, return a
Scheme object suitable for representing the linked object file.
Otherwise an error is thrown.  How object files are searched is system
dependent.

Normally, @var{library} is just the name of some shared library file
that will be searched for in the places where shared libraries usually
reside, such as in @file{/usr/lib} and @file{/usr/local/lib}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} dynamic-object? obj
@deffnx {C Function} scm_dynamic_object_p (obj)
Return @code{#t} if @var{obj} is a dynamic library handle, or @code{#f}
otherwise.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} dynamic-unlink dobj
@deffnx {C Function} scm_dynamic_unlink (dobj)
Unlink the indicated object file from the application.  The
argument @var{dobj} must have been obtained by a call to
@code{dynamic-link}.  After @code{dynamic-unlink} has been
called on @var{dobj}, its content is no longer accessible.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} dynamic-func name dobj
@deffnx {C Function} scm_dynamic_func (name, dobj)
Search the dynamic object @var{dobj} for the C function
indicated by the string @var{name} and return some Scheme
handle that can later be used with @code{dynamic-call} to
actually call the function.

Regardless whether your C compiler prepends an underscore @samp{_} to
the global names in a program, you should @strong{not} include this
underscore in @var{function}.  Guile knows whether the underscore is
needed or not and will add it when necessary.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} dynamic-call func dobj
@deffnx {C Function} scm_dynamic_call (func, dobj)
Call the C function indicated by @var{func} and @var{dobj}.
The function is passed no arguments and its return value is
ignored.  When @var{function} is something returned by
@code{dynamic-func}, call that function and ignore @var{dobj}.
When @var{func} is a string , look it up in @var{dynobj}; this
is equivalent to
@smallexample
(dynamic-call (dynamic-func @var{func} @var{dobj}) #f)
@end smallexample

Interrupts are deferred while the C function is executing (with
@code{SCM_DEFER_INTS}/@code{SCM_ALLOW_INTS}).
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} dynamic-args-call func dobj args
@deffnx {C Function} scm_dynamic_args_call (func, dobj, args)
Call the C function indicated by @var{func} and @var{dobj},
just like @code{dynamic-call}, but pass it some arguments and
return its return value.  The C function is expected to take
two arguments and return an @code{int}, just like @code{main}:
@smallexample
int c_func (int argc, char **argv);
@end smallexample

The parameter @var{args} must be a list of strings and is
converted into an array of @code{char *}.  The array is passed
in @var{argv} and its size in @var{argc}.  The return value is
converted to a Scheme number and returned from the call to
@code{dynamic-args-call}.
@end deffn

When dynamic linking is disabled or not supported on your system,
the above functions throw errors, but they are still available.

Here is a small example that works on GNU/Linux:

@smallexample
(define libc-obj (dynamic-link "libc.so"))
libc-obj
@result{} #<dynamic-object "libc.so">
(dynamic-args-call 'rand libc-obj '())
@result{} 269167349
(dynamic-unlink libc-obj)
libc-obj
@result{} #<dynamic-object "libc.so" (unlinked)>
@end smallexample

As you can see, after calling @code{dynamic-unlink} on a dynamically
linked library, it is marked as @samp{(unlinked)} and you are no longer
able to use it with @code{dynamic-call}, etc.  Whether the library is
really removed from you program is system-dependent and will generally
not happen when some other parts of your program still use it.  In the
example above, @code{libc} is almost certainly not removed from your
program because it is badly needed by almost everything.

The functions to call a function from a dynamically linked library,
@code{dynamic-call} and @code{dynamic-args-call}, are not very powerful.
They are mostly intended to be used for calling specially written
initialization functions that will then add new primitives to Guile.
For example, we do not expect that you will dynamically link
@file{libX11} with @code{dynamic-link} and then construct a beautiful
graphical user interface just by using @code{dynamic-call} and
@code{dynamic-args-call}.  Instead, the usual way would be to write a
special Guile<->X11 glue library that has intimate knowledge about both
Guile and X11 and does whatever is necessary to make them inter-operate
smoothly.  This glue library could then be dynamically linked into a
vanilla Guile interpreter and activated by calling its initialization
function.  That function would add all the new types and primitives to
the Guile interpreter that it has to offer.

From this setup the next logical step is to integrate these glue
libraries into the module system of Guile so that you can load new
primitives into a running system just as you can load new Scheme code.

There is, however, another possibility to get a more thorough access to
the functions contained in a dynamically linked library.  Anthony Green
has written @file{libffi}, a library that implements a @dfn{foreign
function interface} for a number of different platforms.  With it, you
can extend the Spartan functionality of @code{dynamic-call} and
@code{dynamic-args-call} considerably.  There is glue code available in
the Guile contrib archive to make @file{libffi} accessible from Guile.

@node Compiled Code Modules
@subsubsection Putting Compiled Code into Modules

The new primitives that you add to Guile with
@code{scm_c_define_gsubr} (@pxref{Primitive Procedures}) or with any
of the other mechanisms are placed into the @code{(guile-user)} module
by default.  However, it is also possible to put new primitives into
other modules.

The mechanism for doing so is not very well thought out and is likely to
change when the module system of Guile itself is revised, but it is
simple and useful enough to document it as it stands.

What @code{scm_c_define_gsubr} and the functions used by the snarfer
really do is to add the new primitives to whatever module is the
@emph{current module} when they are called.  This is analogous to the
way Scheme code is put into modules: the @code{define-module} expression
at the top of a Scheme source file creates a new module and makes it the
current module while the rest of the file is evaluated.  The
@code{define} expressions in that file then add their new definitions to
this current module.

Therefore, all we need to do is to make sure that the right module is
current when calling @code{scm_c_define_gsubr} for our new primitives.

@node Dynamic Linking and Compiled Code Modules
@subsubsection Dynamic Linking and Compiled Code Modules

The most interesting application of dynamically linked libraries is
probably to use them for providing @emph{compiled code modules} to
Scheme programs.  As much fun as programming in Scheme is, every now and
then comes the need to write some low-level C stuff to make Scheme even
more fun.

Not only can you put these new primitives into their own module (see the
previous section), you can even put them into a shared library that is
only then linked to your running Guile image when it is actually
needed.

An example will hopefully make everything clear.  Suppose we want to
make the Bessel functions of the C library available to Scheme in the
module @samp{(math bessel)}.  First we need to write the appropriate
glue code to convert the arguments and return values of the functions
from Scheme to C and back.  Additionally, we need a function that will
add them to the set of Guile primitives.  Because this is just an
example, we will only implement this for the @code{j0} function.

@c FIXME::martin: Change all gh_ references to their scm_ equivalents.

@smallexample
#include <math.h>
#include <libguile.h>

SCM
j0_wrapper (SCM x)
@{
  return scm_double2num (j0 (scm_num2dbl (x, "j0")));
@}

void
init_math_bessel ()
@{
  scm_c_define_gsubr ("j0", 1, 0, 0, j0_wrapper);
@}
@end smallexample

We can already try to bring this into action by manually calling the low
level functions for performing dynamic linking.  The C source file needs
to be compiled into a shared library.  Here is how to do it on
GNU/Linux, please refer to the @code{libtool} documentation for how to
create dynamically linkable libraries portably.

@smallexample
gcc -shared -o libbessel.so -fPIC bessel.c
@end smallexample

Now fire up Guile:

@smalllisp
(define bessel-lib (dynamic-link "./libbessel.so"))
(dynamic-call "init_math_bessel" bessel-lib)
(j0 2)
@result{} 0.223890779141236
@end smalllisp

The filename @file{./libbessel.so} should be pointing to the shared
library produced with the @code{gcc} command above, of course.  The
second line of the Guile interaction will call the
@code{init_math_bessel} function which in turn will register the C
function @code{j0_wrapper} with the Guile interpreter under the name
@code{j0}.  This function becomes immediately available and we can call
it from Scheme.

Fun, isn't it?  But we are only half way there.  This is what
@code{apropos} has to say about @code{j0}:

@smallexample
(apropos "j0")
@print{} (guile-user): j0     #<primitive-procedure j0>
@end smallexample

As you can see, @code{j0} is contained in the root module, where all
the other Guile primitives like @code{display}, etc live.  In general,
a primitive is put into whatever module is the @dfn{current module} at
the time @code{scm_c_define_gsubr} is called.

A compiled module should have a specially named @dfn{module init
function}.  Guile knows about this special name and will call that
function automatically after having linked in the shared library.  For
our example, we replace @code{init_math_bessel} with the following code in
@file{bessel.c}:

@smallexample
void
init_math_bessel (void *unused)
@{
  scm_c_define_gsubr ("j0", 1, 0, 0, j0_wrapper);
  scm_c_export ("j0", NULL);
@}

void
scm_init_math_bessel_module ()
@{
  scm_c_define_module ("math bessel", init_math_bessel, NULL);   
@}
@end smallexample

The general pattern for the name of a module init function is:
@samp{scm_init_}, followed by the name of the module where the
individual hierarchical components are concatenated with underscores,
followed by @samp{_module}.

After @file{libbessel.so} has been rebuilt, we need to place the shared
library into the right place.

Once the module has been correctly installed, it should be possible to
use it like this:

@smallexample
guile> (load-extension "./libbessel.so" "scm_init_math_bessel_module")
guile> (use-modules (math bessel))
guile> (j0 2)
0.223890779141236
guile> (apropos "j0")
@print{} (math bessel): j0      #<primitive-procedure j0>
@end smallexample

That's it!

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} load-extension lib init
@deffnx {C Function} scm_load_extension (lib, init)
Load and initialize the extension designated by LIB and INIT.
When there is no pre-registered function for LIB/INIT, this is
equivalent to

@lisp
(dynamic-call INIT (dynamic-link LIB))
@end lisp

When there is a pre-registered function, that function is called
instead.

Normally, there is no pre-registered function.  This option exists
only for situations where dynamic linking is unavailable or unwanted.
In that case, you would statically link your program with the desired
library, and register its init function right after Guile has been
initialized.

LIB should be a string denoting a shared library without any file type
suffix such as ".so".  The suffix is provided automatically.  It
should also not contain any directory components.  Libraries that
implement Guile Extensions should be put into the normal locations for
shared libraries.  We recommend to use the naming convention
libguile-bla-blum for a extension related to a module `(bla blum)'.

The normal way for a extension to be used is to write a small Scheme
file that defines a module, and to load the extension into this
module.  When the module is auto-loaded, the extension is loaded as
well.  For example,

@lisp
(define-module (bla blum))

(load-extension "libguile-bla-blum" "bla_init_blum")
@end lisp
@end deffn

@node Variables
@subsection Variables
@tpindex Variables

Each module has its own hash table, sometimes known as an @dfn{obarray},
that maps the names defined in that module to their corresponding
variable objects.

A variable is a box-like object that can hold any Scheme value.  It is
said to be @dfn{undefined} if its box holds a special Scheme value that
denotes undefined-ness (which is different from all other Scheme values,
including for example @code{#f}); otherwise the variable is
@dfn{defined}.

On its own, a variable object is anonymous.  A variable is said to be
@dfn{bound} when it is associated with a name in some way, usually a
symbol in a module obarray.  When this happens, the relationship is
mutual: the variable is bound to the name (in that module), and the name
(in that module) is bound to the variable.

(That's the theory, anyway.  In practice, defined-ness and bound-ness
sometimes get confused, because Lisp and Scheme implementations have
often conflated --- or deliberately drawn no distinction between --- a
name that is unbound and a name that is bound to a variable whose value
is undefined.  We will try to be clear about the difference and explain
any confusion where it is unavoidable.)

Variables do not have a read syntax.  Most commonly they are created and
bound implicitly by @code{define} expressions: a top-level @code{define}
expression of the form

@lisp
(define @var{name} @var{value})
@end lisp

@noindent
creates a variable with initial value @var{value} and binds it to the
name @var{name} in the current module.  But they can also be created
dynamically by calling one of the constructor procedures
@code{make-variable} and @code{make-undefined-variable}.

First-class variables are especially useful for interacting with the
current module system (@pxref{The Guile module system}).

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} make-undefined-variable
@deffnx {C Function} scm_make_undefined_variable ()
Return a variable that is initially unbound.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} make-variable init
@deffnx {C Function} scm_make_variable (init)
Return a variable initialized to value @var{init}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} variable-bound? var
@deffnx {C Function} scm_variable_bound_p (var)
Return @code{#t} iff @var{var} is bound to a value.
Throws an error if @var{var} is not a variable object.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} variable-ref var
@deffnx {C Function} scm_variable_ref (var)
Dereference @var{var} and return its value.
@var{var} must be a variable object; see @code{make-variable}
and @code{make-undefined-variable}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} variable-set! var val
@deffnx {C Function} scm_variable_set_x (var, val)
Set the value of the variable @var{var} to @var{val}.
@var{var} must be a variable object, @var{val} can be any
value. Return an unspecified value.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} variable? obj
@deffnx {C Function} scm_variable_p (obj)
Return @code{#t} iff @var{obj} is a variable object, else
return @code{#f}.
@end deffn


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